Academic Matters

Nora

Master of Science in Information Studies

Semester 2, Academic Year 2006/2007

“THE REASON THE ENLIGHTENED PRINCE AND THE WISE GENERAL CONQUER THE ENEMY. . .AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS SURPASS THOSE OF ORDINARY MEN IS FOREKNOWLEDGE. FOREKNOWLEDGE. . .MUST BE OBTAINED FROM MEN WHO KNOW THE ENEMY SITUATION.” Sun Tzu, The Art of War , 500 BC

Information sharing between governmental agencies is a vital tool in upholding national security and assisting leaders in decision-making. Failure to share information between the United States agencies led up to the 9/11 attacks (Hamilton, 2005). Collection and sharing of timely intelligence information is critical to prevent threats. However, gathering intelligence information is consequential in completing the puzzle to combat threats and the big picture emerges only when a separate piece of information is combined with other pieces of information.

Intelligence officers collate, analyze and disseminate relevant information valuable to the agencies. The United Kingdom’s Security Service, MI5, assesses and investigates threats to protect the national infrastructure while the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) main job scope is centered on foreigners. The intelligence work ranges from short term assessment of materials to long term analysis of different sources which leads to building up a bigger picture for the agencies’ understanding.

Williams (2005) believed that the relationship between information science and intelligence work is scarcely documented due to the involvement of classified information, thus impeding in-depth analysis of the correlation. Warner (2002) noted that intelligence does not necessarily equate to accurate or relevant information only but also includes the process of collection, analysis and usage.

Burke (1994), in a rare study done on the relationship between the information profession and the secrecy during World War II and the Cold War, manifested the historical automated approach to information retrieval. The United States Navy had developed a cryptanalytic machine using the IBM tabulating equipment by late 1930s and developed tabular-based systems for character identification and analysis. This paper documents the process of turning information to value added information for the intelligence agencies.

2 Difference between Information & Intelligence

Information and intelligence are terms which occur synonymously with each other. However, not all collated from multiple sources could lead to valuable intelligence. The term “information” provides different meaning for individuals and each individual has dissimiliar information behaviour. Information behaviour is defined as human behaviour with respect to information sources and channel. This active and passive behaviour includes both information seeking and usage (Wilson, 2000). There are various definitions in information. Buckland (1991) identified “information” as a “process”, “knowledge” and “thing”. Observations is the starting and beginning of any information cycle.

Information-as-process is the act of informing and becoming informed. A student changes his perception after getting new information from his teachers. In this instance, information is the facilitating of knowledge to another individual and is the action of imparting or receiving information.

Information that is being communicated is intangible. Communication involves specific fact or data of which an individual is being made aware of and at times, knowledge reduces uncertainties. The content of newspapers and memos are examples of such information-as-knowledge where the readers cannot touch and measure it in any direct way.

Information-as-thing is the physical objects of information such as data and documents. These objects are referred to because of their informative nature. This information is considered abstract and is not directly measurable. Personal beliefs and opinions built on an individual’s conception and expressing these connotations physically is required to get the message across. A signal, indication, text documents or verbal communication are needed to relay the messages and therefore supported the notion of information-as-thing.

Many authorities define “intelligence” as “information (Warner, 2005). However, CIA’s senior analyst, Sherman Kent, defined “intelligence” as knowledge to safeguard the national welfare and sovereignty. Lyman Kirkpatrick, a CIA officer, argues that intelligence is knowledge sought with respect to external threats and measures to protect vital interests. The Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms of US Joint Chiefs of Staff has two definitions for “intelligence”. Intelligence is the product from collection, processing, integration, analysis, evaluation and interpretation of information on foreign areas. The second definitions define intelligence as information and knowledge obtained from several analysis and understanding.

Although most individuals have the perceptions that intelligence and information are interchangeable, each term presents different definitions and is indistinguishable. Intelligence involves information. However, not all information is intelligence. Lowenthal (2002) highlighted that intelligence is the “carrying out of operations”. Shulsky (2002) provided a deeper insight into intelligence. He emphasized that intelligence activities are conducted in secrecy and it is the factor that distinguishes intelligence from other information activities.

Intelligence is based on the cycle which continuously collects and analyses information. This cycle consists of authenticating the information received or gathered, linking the information available to other data, developing a hypothesis and using the hypothesis to achieve a goal or further review.

3 The Intelligence Cycle

National Intelligence Agencies such as the CIA and the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS) follows the standard cyclical procedures to generate Intelligence. The intelligence cycle can be defined as a five step process from developing the raw information to the final product for the policymakers’ usage. Intelligence involves the getting of covert and overt information to have a clearer overview of the situation. The cycle repeats itself when new requirements are needed by the end users.

3.1 Planning and Direction

The intelligence cycle begins with the Planning and Direction Process which encompasses the management of the entire effort. This process includes the identifying of relevant data or threats to enable the delivery of the intelligence end product to the policy makers. Past decisions are reviewed at this stage and the whole process is initiated by public officials. The requirements for intelligence information are often meted out in this initial stage.

3.2 Collection

The second stage of the cycle consists of collecting raw and unassessed information from variety of sources. Information is collected and distributed to the analysts or a processing station. The gathering of information involves overt operations such as the use of open sources data which ranges from foreign media to official records. The gathering of information through intrusive covert operations involves intelligence from the undercover agents stationed overseas and defectors. Collecting intelligence engages the use of technological equipments such as acquiring electronic communications and taking satellite images. The technological systems aid the agencies in monitoring operations such as arms control agreements and providing support to military operations.

The vast information collated from the previous cycle is then converted into a form instrumental to the intelligence analysts. The processing cycle involves the sorting of

information by decryption and translation. Duplicating information is eliminated and information is organized to aid the analysis of information

The fourth stage of the cycle converts the raw and unassessed information into absolute intelligence information. The raw information is assessed by analysts who use their knowledge and experiences in their particular expertise for relevancy and reliability. Analysts combine fragments of information from different sources into intelligible reports.

Intelligence analysts provide value-added service to the raw information gathered from monitoring events and forecasting trends or threats. Analysts’ reports range from a brief memo to lengthy long-term assessments of subjects.

The distribution of the end-product to the policymakers marks the attainment of the finished intelligence. The cycle starts again stemming from further enquiries from the policymakers. Constant re-assessment of threats triggers the information cycle and is a deciding factor in allocating resources.

Intelligence analysts use a broad range of information sources to derive their hypotheses. Clauser & Weir (1975) identified four general categories of information sources used for intelligence gathering; people, physical objects, emanations and records. The information provided by the sources is not intelligence if the information is still in its raw form and value is not added to the information.

People are the primary source of information and in-depth information are gathered from subject experts and professionals. Some of the raw information is gathered from eyewitnesses who encountered first-hand accounts of any given situations. Undocumented information is gathered from people and at times, these sources provide timely and accurate information than documented information available. Human source intelligence (HUMINT) is dependent on interpersonal communication. HUMINT sources include prisoners-of-war and refugees who may be willing or forced informants.

Physical objects as information sources provide a deeper understanding of situations and further substantiate verbal accounts. In situations where information sources from people are absent, objects provide a clue for deeper insights. Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) falls under the physical object source. The images are captured from satellites or aerial photography. Documented records show that IMINT from satellites during the 1991 Gulf War assisted combat operations by the US army.

Emanations sources provide a basis for scientific and technical analysis. For example, a bullet may be further examined to gather the make and model of the weapon it was fired. Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT) and Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) are example of emanations. MASINT information is derived by technical sensors. MASINT encompasses smaller sub-classes of intelligence such as Radar Intelligence (RADINT) and Acoustic Intelligence (ACOUSTINT). SIGINT has encompasses of several narrower terms of Intelligence such as Electronic Intelligence (ELINT). SIGINT detects transmission from electronic systems and provide information on the type and location of other electronic devices such as hand-held radio.

Documented records enable analysts to research and find specific information. A dictionary is an example of documented records where analysts look up to confirm the correct usage of words. IMINT and SIGINT can also be sources of documented records.

Intelligence from open source (OSINT) was popularized when intelligence analysts realized that information is “stove piped” over time where most of the information is available in isolated environments. OSINT is regarded as the core for all intelligence collections and analyses. Governments and Businesses exploit open sources for intelligence and in both case, the open source information is readily credited. In Business, open source information is also term as competitive intelligence and it is usually of low cost.

Most Intelligence Agencies do not share the intelligence freely on the basis of safeguarding national security and intelligence is administered on a “need-to-know” basis. After a thorough analysis of information, the intelligence is then disseminating to the users. The finished intelligence can be categorized into five branches.

Current Intelligence encompasses all aspects that needs immediate attention and provides updates of daily events. Current Intelligence alerts end users on potential threats and allows the formulation of early measures.

Estimative intelligence narrows the information gaps of end users and provides an estimate of possible events. Analysts assessed the information and conclude the alternatives patterns that are derived from the raw information.

Precautions and alarm which are passed to the end users are known as Warning Intelligence. This intelligence identifies and forecast the events that could trigger military involvement or a negative impact on foreign relations. Analysts provide alternatives on different probable events and suggest other methods to the end users.

Basic Intelligence and Operational Intelligence are two narrow categories of Research Intelligence. Basic Intelligence involves the core intelligence on foreign countries such as the military and demographic intelligence. Operational support intelligence encompasses all aspect of research in which the end users are presented with the operational details such as the information on the foreign military bases. Research Intelligence involve a thorough understanding and study of a particular subject and support the intelligence gathered for basic and estimative intelligence.

The finished intelligence contains scientific and technical information such as the development of foreign technologies. The claims by certain countries of having the ability to launch nuclear weapons test could trigger an immediate demand for scientific and technical information. This intelligence covers a broad range of subjects from weapon systems to integrated operations.

The functions of “Information Management” are obvious in the governmental intelligence agencies and processes such as information gathering and information sources are apparent. The collection steps of information such as having an information strategy and information sources denotes the assimilation.

The similarities between the government and intelligence agencies can be clearly seen in the “Intelligence Cycle”. Government and business intelligence analysts are dependent on the flow of information in the respective organizations. The information gathered is used to meet and satisfy information needs and monitor of developments in the environment.

Although information is greatly involved in intelligence collection, secrecy is core element of any intelligence activities. The use of technologies such as imagery equipments to capture satellite photographs emphasized the importance of technology in all aspects of our daily lives.

The terms “information” and “intelligence” may appear synonymous with each other however, analysts or processors of information must be able to differentiate between the two. Information is raw data which could lead to inaccuracy however; intelligence is the end-product of a complete analytical process. Collected raw information undergoes several processes of conversion before it yields intelligence value. Processing of raw information does not lead to any actions such as stopping of terrorism but the intelligence gathered from various source is the key to launch action to keep the sovereignty of the nation.

The great abundance of information available provides an information overload environment for any analyst. It is highly recommended that the basics of information retrieval such as indexing, tagging and search capabilities are deployed and adhered in all organization especially in intelligence agencies. A deep understanding of Information Science enables analysts and intelligence processors in providing a timely and accurate intelligence to the end users. Intelligence is vital to policymakers especially in the war of counter-terrorism.

Ideally, intelligence analysts are domain experts with knowledge of information science as it is vital for analysts to gather the information at the shortest time possible in this volatile and ever-changing world. The infusion of information science into the intelligence agencies could provide benefits and thus reduces pressures on the analysts. The US has set precedents for others by declassifying and documenting the intelligence processes. However, not many countries have follow and it is highly recommended that other nations adopt the precedents.

8 References

Buckland, M. (1991). INFORMATION AS THING Retrieved 25 Mar, 2007, from http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/thing.html

Central Intelligence Agencies (2007). The Intelligence Cycle. Retrieved 20 Mar, 2007, from https://www.cia.gov/cia/ciakids/who_we_are/cycle.shtml

Gerdes, L. I. (2004). Espionage and intelligence gathering. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press. Gill, P., & Phythian, M. (2006).

Government Communications Headquarters. (2007). Intelligence Analysts: about us. Retrieved 12 Mar, 2007, from http://www.gchq.gov.uk/recruitment/careers/analyst_us.html

Hamilton, L. H. (2005). Federal Support for Homeland Security Information Sharing: The Role of the Information

Sharing Program Manager. Retrieved 17 March, 2007, from http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2005_hr/110805hamilton.pdf

Krizan, L. (2006). Intelligence Essentials for Everyone. Retrieved 16 Mar, 2007, from http://www.directionsmag.com/printer.php?article_id=2318

Liebowitz, J. (2000). Building organizational intelligence : a knowledge management primer. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.

Powers, T. (2004). Intelligence wars : American secret history from Hitler to al-Qaeda (Rev. and expanded ed.). New York: New York Review Books. Ronczkowski, M. (2004).

Shukman, H. (2000). Agents for change : intelligence services in the 21st century. London: St Ermin’s Press in association with Little Brown. Suppiah, H. (1996).

The Joint Military Intelligence College. (1999). Intelligence Essentials For Everyone. Retrieved 28 Mar, 2007, from http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dia/intel_essentials_krizan.pdf

Thompson, L. D. (2003). Intelligence Collection and Information Sharing within the United States. Retrieved 15 March, 2007, from http://www.brook.edu/views/testimony/thompson/20031208.htm

UK Security Service (2006). Intelligence Officer. Retrieved 11 Mar, 2007, from https://www.mi5careers.gov.uk/job.aspx?jobid=44

Williams, R. V., & Lipetz, B.-A. (2005). Covert and overt : recollecting and connecting intelligence service and information science. Medford, N.J.: Published for the American Society for Information Science and Technology by Information Today in cooperation with Scarecrow Press.